The Division of Islamic and Arab Lands Before and After the Sykes–Picot Agreement, Considering Historical, Cultural, Geopolitical, and Civilizational Aspects
By Khaledin Ziaei, Head of the Educational Discourse of the Nation Think Tank – especially for “Sangar”
The division of Islamic and Arab territories from the 19th century to the present has been one of the key axes of colonial policy and later the geopolitical strategy of world powers. This article, through the study of colonial theories before Sykes–Picot, the agreement itself (1916), and subsequent theories and practices, demonstrates that the fragmentation of the Islamic world had not only political and territorial dimensions but also profound cultural, civilizational, economic, and geopolitical consequences.
INTRODUCTION
Since the late 19th century, with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, European powers—especially Britain and France—sought to create spheres of influence and establish control over Islamic and Arab lands. These policies, along with the Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916), not only altered the political and territorial map of the region but also had a deep cultural and civilizational impact on Islamic and Arab identity. Studying this process and subsequent theories helps better understand the historical transformations and contemporary crises in the Middle East.
BEFORE THE SYKES–PICOT AGREEMENT
- Colonial Projects of Britain and France
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline, creating opportunities for European powers:
Britain: Focused on Egypt, the Persian Gulf, and the route to India as vital economic and military directions, protected trade routes, and sought to prevent Russian penetration.
France: Concentrated on Syria and Lebanon to expand influence in the Eastern Mediterranean and maintain access to regional resources and markets.
These objectives were not only military and political; the West also aimed to manage and control Islamic and Arab identity in a cultural-civilizational dimension.
- Early Secret Agreements and Negotiations
Berlin Conference (1884–1885): The division of Africa among European powers became a model for dividing the Middle East.
The “Great Game” in Central Asia: Rivalry between Britain and Russia for influence in Muslim lands highlighted the geopolitical importance of the region.
Other negotiations: Exchange of information and secret agreements between France and Britain on future spheres of influence.
THE SYKES–PICOT AGREEMENT (1916)
This secret agreement between Britain and France, with the awareness of Tsarist Russia, envisioned the division of Arab territories after a potential collapse of the Ottoman Empire:
France: Syria and Lebanon
Britain: Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan
Russia: Parts of Eastern Anatolia
Palestine: International administration
This division created artificial borders, undermining and weakening the civilizational, cultural, and economic unity of the Islamic world. From a civilizational perspective, the agreement fragmented Islamic identity into several subzones within the interests of the powers, reducing the historical, cultural, and civilizational integrity of the Islamic world.
AFTER SYKES–PICOT: THEORISTS AND PROJECTS OF NEW DIVISION
- Balfour Declaration (1917)
The Balfour Declaration laid the foundation for the creation of Israel in Palestine and became part of the Middle East partition project. Geopolitically, it consolidated Western presence and influence in the heart of the Arab world, and civilizationally, it caused one of the largest historical fractures in Arab-Islamic identity.
- The Principle of National Self-Determination (Wilson)
Although this principle appeared liberating externally, in practice it resulted in the establishment of British and French mandates over Arab countries. It became a pretext for legitimizing Western colonial influence and limited the real independence and cultural unity of the Arab world.
- Theorists of the 20th and 21st Centuries
Bernard Lewis
Proposed the division of the Islamic world into 80–90 small states so that no regional power could unite against the West and challenge it. He considered the Sykes–Picot division incomplete and unfinished. His theory combined cultural and geopolitical aspects, as it directly relied on emphasizing religious, tribal, and cultural divisions.
Raphael Patai
Author of The Arab Mind, he emphasized the possibility of exploiting and deepening internal rifts and disagreements within Arab societies.
Zbigniew Brzezinski
In his book The Grand Chessboard (1997), he highlighted the importance of fragmenting Muslim countries in Central Asia and the Middle East to maintain U.S. supremacy.
- The “Greater Middle East” Project (Post-2001)
Presented by the administration of George W. Bush.
Objective: Political, cultural, and even territorial restructuring of the Islamic world.
From a geopolitical and geo-economic perspective, the project provided the West with access to the region’s energy resources and strategic positions.
CULTURAL AND CIVILIZATIONAL ASPECTS
The division of territories and subsequent projects led to a weakening of Islamic and Arab identity, unity, and shared objectives:
Religious, ethnic, and linguistic divisions intensified;
Cultural and civilizational cohesion, as well as the economic interests of the Islamic world, decreased;
The role of the Islamic world as an influential global player was undermined.
GEOPOLITICAL AND STRATEGIC ASPECTS
Control over strategic points such as the Suez Canal, the Persian Gulf, and the Eastern Mediterranean fell into the hands of Western countries, especially the U.S.;
The emergence of strong united Arab-Islamic blocs capable of challenging Western powers, primarily the U.S., was prevented;
U.S. and European influence was strengthened through military alliances (e.g., NATO) in the internal affairs of Islamic and Arab countries.
GEO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Direct access of Western countries to the Islamic world’s cheap oil and gas reserves;
Weakening of the bargaining power and political-economic capabilities of Muslim countries in the global energy market;
Creation of small states dependent on the economic interests and security policies of Western powers, especially the U.S.
CONCLUSION
Before Sykes–Picot: The colonial theories of Britain and France aimed to weaken and divide the Ottoman Empire.
Sykes–Picot: The division of Arab-Islamic lands between Britain and France, with Russia’s awareness and participation.
After Sykes–Picot: Figures such as Balfour, Lewis, Brzezinski, and the “Greater Middle East” project operated within the concept of “managed chaos,” facilitating further fragmentation of the Islamic world and allowing its implementation with minimal future cost.
The concept of “creative chaos,” applied during George W. Bush Jr.’s administration, effectively became a working strategy. Its goal was to create fundamental and often unstable changes in certain regions of the world, especially the Greater Middle East, to establish new conditions and opportunities for the long-term preservation of Western, primarily American, interests.
Thus, the division of the Islamic world was not only political and economic but also generated wide-ranging cultural, civilizational, geopolitical, and strategic consequences. In the future, as this new colonial project continues to unfold, even more changes and transformations detrimental to the Islamic world and the region’s peoples can be expected.
Studying these processes in the historical context of the Islamic world’s division, particularly with regard to the application of the “managed chaos” concept during the Bush Jr. era, helps better understand the current crises and competitions in the Greater Middle East, especially in the Islamic world.